Code of Ethics
of the American Anthropological Association
Approved June 1998
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I. Preamble
Anthropological researchers, teachers and practitioners are members of many
different communities, each with its own moral rules or codes of ethics.
Anthropologists have moral obligations as members of other groups, such as
the family, religion, and community, as well as the profession. They also
have obligations to the scholarly discipline, to the wider society and
culture, and to the human species, other species, and the environment.
Furthermore, fieldworkers may develop close relationships with persons or
animals with whom they work, generating an additional level of ethical
considerations
In a field of such complex involvements and obligations, it is inevitable
that misunderstandings, conflicts, and the need to make choices among
apparently incompatible values will arise. Anthropologists are responsible
for grappling with such difficulties and struggling to resolve them in ways
compatible with the principles stated here. The purpose of this Code is to
foster discussion and education. The American Anthropological Association
(AAA) does not adjudicate claims for unethical behavior.
The principles and guidelines in this Code provide the anthropologist with
tools to engage in developing and maintaining an ethical framework for all
anthropological work.
II. Introduction
Anthropology is a multidisciplinary field of science and scholarship,
which includes the study of all aspects of humankind--archaeological,
biological, linguistic and sociocultural. Anthropology has roots in the
natural and social sciences and in the humanities, ranging in approach from
basic to applied research and to scholarly interpretation.
As the principal organization representing the breadth of anthropology,
the American Anthropological Association (AAA) starts from the position that
generating and appropriately utilizing knowledge (i.e., publishing, teaching,
developing programs, and informing policy) of the peoples of the world, past
and present, is a worthy goal; that the generation of anthropological
knowledge is a dynamic process using many different and ever-evolving
approaches; and that for moral and practical reasons, the generation and
utilization of knowledge should be achieved in an ethical manner.
The mission of American Anthropological Association is to advance all
aspects of anthropological research and to foster dissemination of
anthropological knowledge through publications, teaching, public education,
and application. An important part of that mission is to help educate AAA
members about ethical obligations and challenges involved in the generation,
dissemination, and utilization of anthropological knowledge.
The purpose of this Code is to provide AAA members and other interested
persons with guidelines for making ethical choices in the conduct of their
anthropological work. Because anthropologists can find themselves in complex
situations and subject to more than one code of ethics, the AAA Code of
Ethics provides a framework, not an ironclad formula, for making decisions.
Persons using the Code as a guideline for making ethical choices or for
teaching are encouraged to seek out illustrative examples and appropriate
case studies to enrich their knowledge base.
Anthropologists have a duty to be informed about ethical codes relating to
their work, and ought periodically to receive training on current research
activities and ethical issues. In addition, departments offering anthropology
degrees should include and require ethical training in their curriculums.
No code or set of guidelines can anticipate unique circumstances or direct
actions in specific situations. The individual anthropologist must be willing
to make carefully considered ethical choices and be prepared to make clear
the assumptions, facts and issues on which those choices are based. These
guidelines therefore address general contexts, priorities and
relationships which should be considered in ethical decision making in
anthropological work.
III. Research
In both proposing and carrying out research, anthropological researchers
must be open about the purpose(s), potential impacts, and source(s) of
support for research projects with funders, colleagues, persons studied or
providing information, and with relevant parties affected by the research.
Researchers must expect to utilize the results of their work in an
appropriate fashion and disseminate the results through appropriate and
timely activities. Research fulfilling these expectations is ethical,
regardless of the source of funding (public or private) or purpose (i.e.,
"applied," "basic," "pure," or
"proprietary").
Anthropological researchers should be alert to the danger of compromising
anthropological ethics as a condition to engage in research, yet also be
alert to proper demands of good citizenship or host-guest relations. Active
contribution and leadership in seeking to shape public or private sector
actions and policies may be as ethically justifiable as inaction, detachment,
or noncooperation, depending on circumstances. Similar principles hold for
anthropological researchers employed or otherwise affiliated with nonanthropological
institutions, public institutions, or private enterprises.
A. Responsibility to people and animals with whom anthropological
researchers work and whose lives and cultures they study.
1. Anthropological researchers have primary ethical obligations to the
people, species, and materials they study and to the people with whom they
work. These obligations can supersede the goal of seeking new knowledge, and
can lead to decisions not to undertake or to discontinue a research project
when the primary obligation conflicts with other responsibilities, such as
those owed to sponsors or clients. These ethical obligations include:
- To avoid harm or
wrong, understanding that the development of knowledge can lead to
change which may be positive or negative for the people or animals
worked with or studied
- To respect the
well-being of humans and nonhuman primates
- To work for the
long-term conservation of the archaeological, fossil, and historical
records
- To consult actively
with the affected individuals or group(s), with the goal of establishing
a working relationship that can be beneficial to all parties involved
2. Anthropological researchers must do everything in their power to ensure
that their research does not harm the safety, dignity, or privacy of the
people with whom they work, conduct research, or perform other professional
activities. Anthropological researchers working with animals must do
everything in their power to ensure that the research does not harm the
safety, psychological well-being or survival of the animals or species with
which they work.
3. Anthropological researchers must determine in advance whether their
hosts/providers of information wish to remain anonymous or receive
recognition, and make every effort to comply with those wishes. Researchers
must present to their research participants the possible impacts of the
choices, and make clear that despite their best efforts, anonymity may be
compromised or recognition fail to materialize.
4. Anthropological researchers should obtain in advance the informed
consent of persons being studied, providing information, owning or
controlling access to material being studied, or otherwise identified as
having interests which might be impacted by the research. It is understood
that the degree and breadth of informed consent required will depend on the
nature of the project and may be affected by requirements of other codes,
laws, and ethics of the country or community in which the research is
pursued. Further, it is understood that the informed consent process is
dynamic and continuous; the process should be initiated in the project design
and continue through implementation by way of dialogue and negotiation with
those studied. Researchers are responsible for identifying and complying with
the various informed consent codes, laws and regulations affecting their
projects. Informed consent, for the purposes of this code, does not
necessarily imply or require a particular written or signed form. It is the
quality of the consent, not the format, that is relevant.
5. Anthropological researchers who have developed close and enduring
relationships (i.e., covenantal relationships) with either individual persons
providing information or with hosts must adhere to the obligations of
openness and informed consent, while carefully and respectfully negotiating
the limits of the relationship.
6. While anthropologists may gain personally from their work, they must
not exploit individuals, groups, animals, or cultural or biological
materials. They should recognize their debt to the societies in which they
work and their obligation to reciprocate with people studied in appropriate
ways.
B. Responsibility to scholarship and science
1. Anthropological researchers must expect to encounter ethical dilemmas
at every stage of their work, and must make good-faith efforts to identify
potential ethical claims and conflicts in advance when preparing proposals
and as projects proceed. A section raising and responding to potential
ethical issues should be part of every research proposal.
2. Anthropological researchers bear responsibility for the integrity and
reputation of their discipline, of scholarship, and of science. Thus,
anthropological researchers are subject to the general moral rules of
scientific and scholarly conduct: they should not deceive or knowingly
misrepresent (i.e., fabricate evidence, falsify, plagiarize), or attempt to
prevent reporting of misconduct, or obstruct the scientific/scholarly
research of others.
3. Anthropological researchers should do all they can to preserve
opportunities for future fieldworkers to follow them to the field.
4. Anthropological researchers should utilize the results of their work in
an appropriate fashion, and whenever possible disseminate their findings to
the scientific and scholarly community.
5. Anthropological researchers should seriously consider all reasonable
requests for access to their data and other research materials for purposes
of research. They should also make every effort to insure preservation of
their fieldwork data for use by posterity.
C. Responsibility to the public
1. Anthropological researchers should make the results of their research
appropriately available to sponsors, students, decision makers, and other
nonanthropologists. In so doing, they must be truthful; they are not only
responsible for the factual content of their statements but also must
consider carefully the social and political implications of the information
they disseminate. They must do everything in their power to insure that such
information is well understood, properly contextualized, and responsibly
utilized. They should make clear the empirical bases upon which their reports
stand, be candid about their qualifications and philosophical or political
biases, and recognize and make clear the limits of anthropological expertise.
At the same time, they must be alert to possible harm their information may
cause people with whom they work or colleagues.
2. Anthropologists may choose to move beyond disseminating research
results to a position of advocacy. This is an individual decision, but not an
ethical responsibility.
IV. Teaching
Responsibility to students and trainees
While adhering to ethical and legal codes governing relations between
teachers/mentors and students/trainees at their educational institutions or
as members of wider organizations, anthropological teachers should be
particularly sensitive to the ways such codes apply in their discipline (for
example, when teaching involves close contact with students/trainees in field
situations). Among the widely recognized precepts which anthropological
teachers, like other teachers/mentors, should follow are:
1. Teachers/mentors should conduct their programs in ways that preclude
discrimination on the basis of sex, marital status, "race," social
class, political convictions, disability, religion, ethnic background,
national origin, sexual orientation, age, or other criteria irrelevant to
academic performance.
2. Teachers'/mentors' duties include continually striving to improve their
teaching/training techniques; being available and responsive to
student/trainee interests; counseling students/ trainees realistically
regarding career opportunities; conscientiously supervising, encouraging, and
supporting students'/trainees' studies; being fair, prompt, and reliable in
communicating evaluations; assisting students/trainees in securing research
support; and helping students/trainees when they seek professional placement.
3. Teachers/mentors should impress upon students/trainees the ethical
challenges involved in every phase of anthropological work; encourage them to
reflect upon this and other codes; encourage dialogue with colleagues on
ethical issues; and discourage participation in ethically questionable
projects.
4. Teachers/mentors should publicly acknowledge student/trainee assistance
in research and preparation of their work; give appropriate credit for
coauthorship to students/trainees; encourage publication of worthy
student/trainee papers; and compensate students/trainees justly for their
participation in all professional activities.
5. Teachers/mentors should beware of the exploitation and serious
conflicts of interest which may result if they engage in sexual relations
with students/trainees. They must avoid sexual liaisons with
students/trainees for whose education and professional training they are in
any way responsible.
V. Application
1. The same ethical guidelines apply to all anthropological work. That is,
in both proposing and carrying out research, anthropologists must be open
with funders, colleagues, persons studied or providing information, and
relevant parties affected by the work about the purpose(s), potential
impacts, and source(s) of support for the work. Applied anthropologists must
intend and expect to utilize the results of their work appropriately (i.e.,
publication, teaching, program and policy development) within a reasonable
time. In situations in which anthropological knowledge is applied,
anthropologists bear the same responsibility to be open and candid about
their skills and intentions, and monitor the effects of their work on all
persons affected. Anthropologists may be involved in many types of work,
frequently affecting individuals and groups with diverse and sometimes
conflicting interests. The individual anthropologist must make carefully
considered ethical choices and be prepared to make clear the assumptions,
facts and issues on which those choices are based.
2. In all dealings with employers, persons hired to pursue anthropological
research or apply anthropological knowledge should be honest about their
qualifications, capabilities, and aims. Prior to making any professional
commitments, they must review the purposes of prospective employers, taking
into consideration the employer's past activities and future goals. In
working for governmental agencies or private businesses, they should be
especially careful not to promise or imply acceptance of conditions contrary
to professional ethics or competing commitments.
3. Applied anthropologists, as any anthropologist, should be alert to the
danger of compromising anthropological ethics as a condition for engaging in
research or practice. They should also be alert to proper demands of
hospitality, good citizenship and guest status. Proactive contribution and
leadership in shaping public or private sector actions and policies may be as
ethically justifiable as inaction, detachment, or noncooperation, depending
on circumstances.
VI. Epilogue
Anthropological research, teaching, and application, like any human
actions, pose choices for which anthropologists individually and collectively
bear ethical responsibility. Since anthropologists are members of a variety
of groups and subject to a variety of ethical codes, choices must sometimes
be made not only between the varied obligations presented in this code but
also between those of this code and those incurred in other statuses or
roles. This statement does not dictate choice or propose sanctions. Rather,
it is designed to promote discussion and provide general guidelines for
ethically responsible decisions.
VII. Acknowledgments
This Code was drafted by the Commission to Review the AAA Statements on
Ethics during the period January 1995-March 1997. The Commission members were
James Peacock (Chair), Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Barbara Frankel, Kathleen
Gibson, Janet Levy, and Murray Wax. In addition, the following individuals
participated in the Commission meetings: philosopher Bernard Gert,
anthropologists Cathleen Crain, Shirley Fiske, David Freyer, Felix Moos,
Yolanda Moses, and Niel Tashima; and members of the American Sociological
Association Committee on Ethics. Open hearings on the Code were held at the
1995 and 1996 annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association. The
Commission solicited comments from all AAA Sections. The first draft of the
AAA Code of Ethics was discussed at the May 1995 AAA Section Assembly
meeting; the second draft was briefly discussed at the November 1996 meeting
of the AAA Section Assembly.
The Final Report of the Commission was published in the September 1995
edition of the Anthropology Newsletter and on the AAA web site
(http://www.aaanet.org). Drafts of the Code were published in the April 1996
and 1996 annual meeting edition of the Anthropology Newsletter and the
AAA web site, and comments were solicited from the membership. The Commission
considered all comments from the membership in formulating the final draft in
February 1997. The Commission gratefully acknowledge the use of some language
from the codes of ethics of the National Association for the Practice of
Anthropology and the Society for American Archaeology.
VIII. Other Relevant Codes of Ethics
The following list of other Codes of Ethics may be useful to
anthropological researchers, teachers and practitioners:
Animal Behavior Society
1991 Guidelines for the Use of Animals in Research. Animal Behavior
41:183-186.
American Board of Forensic Examiners
n.d. Code of Ethical Conduct. (American Board of Forensic Examiners,
300 South Jefferson Avenue, Suite 411, Springfield, MO 65806).
Archaeological Institute of America
1991 Code of Ethics. American Journal of Archaeology 95:285.
1994 Code of Professional Standards. (Archaeological Institute of
America, 675 Commonwealth Ave, Boston, MA 02215-1401. Supplements and expands
but does not replace the earlier Code of Ethics).
National Academy of Sciences
1995 On Being a Scientist: Responsible Conduct in Research. 2nd
edition. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press (2121 Constitution Avenue,
NW, Washington, D.C. 20418).
National Association for the Practice of Anthropology
1988 Ethical Guidelines for Practitioners.
Sigma Xi
1992 Sigma Xi Statement on the Use of Animals in Research. American
Scientist 80:73-76.
Society for American Archaeology
1996 Principles of Archaeological Ethics. (Society for American
Archaeology, 900 Second Street, NE, Suite 12, Washington, D.C. 20002-3557).
Society for Applied Anthropology
1983 Professional and Ethical Responsibilities. (Revised 1983).
Society of Professional Archaeologists
1976 Code of Ethics, Standards of Research Performance and Institutional
Standards. (Society of Professional Archaeologists, PO Box 60911,
Oklahoma City, OK 73146-0911).
United Nations
1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
1983 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women.
1987 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Forthcoming United Nations Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
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